Tag Archives: Raising Attainment

Learning and Memory

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So now exams are over and the Christmas holidays have begun, what better time to start blogging again. I’m annoyed at myself for my lack of posts last semester however with work and the constant reminder that we had an exam looming, updating my blog was pushed right to the back of my mind. With that said, I learned a lot during this semester which I aim to reflect upon in my future, and more regular posts.

Within 2CM5, our Education Studies module, we studied three topics of psychology – Attribution theory, Intelligence and Memory. I found the topic of Memory to have the most influence on my understanding and also educational psychology so found myself reading more and more into this field. Learning and memory, and the relationship between these, is a topic of psychology that has been researched for several decades. Spregner (1999) stated, “The only evidence we have of learning is memory” and this demonstrates that the two subjects go hand in hand. Recent research has identified that poor memory is linked to poor academic attainment and therefore it is of significant importance for teachers to be able to apply their knowledge of memory to intervene effectively to raise attainment.

Ebbinghaus was one of the first theorists who considered human memory. He started a tradition of research that became the dominant paradigm for the study in this field. Later, in 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a new model of memory that reflected the ideology of Ebbinghaus. The terms short-term and long-term memory had been discussed throughout this period, however Atkinson and Shiffrin “crystallized these ideas into a precise theory” (Anderson, 2000). Short-term memory was created as new information was retrieved from the environment and through rehearsal it could either be entered into the long-term memory or disposed of. Although this theory has been proven to have some flaws, Atkinson and Shiffrin provided a basis for our understanding of memory today.

The terms short-term memory and long-term memory are still present today however and these will be discussed as two separate entities. Short-term memory refers to the situations in which an individual has to store material. Short-term memory is also linked to working memory, as the individual applies or manipulates the stored material, within a short period of time. Gathercole (2008) describes working memory as “a mental workspace or jotting pad that is used to store important information in the course of our everyday lives.” Working memory is a system of interlinked memory components that are located in different parts of the brain – verbal and visuo-spatial, which exist as short-term memory components, and the central executive that controls focus and is involved in the higher-level mental processes required to manipulate material for working memory. The amount of information that can be held in working memory for even a short period of time is strictly limited and if this limit is exceeded, we will forget at least some of what we are trying to remember. There is a personal limit to working memory, with each individual having a relatively fixed capacity. Forgetting information from working memory is very different from forgetting, for example, where you parked your car. In this case you can mentally retraced your steps to aid memory however when information in the working memory is lost, it is gone for good. The loss of material within the working memory, known as working memory failure, has a detrimental impact on education and this will be discussed later in this post.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5Ehe3KVGmY

Long-term memory is the memory of past experiences and knowledge gained over long periods of time. According to Gathercole (2008) there are four types of long-term memory – episodic memory, autobiographical, semantic and procedural memory. Episodic memory stores memories for specific events in the recent past – it is best at retaining the most important or notable features of events. Unless discussed or reflected upon, these mundane routinely tasks are generally forgotten unless they were a non-routine event that may be stored in a more permanent system – autobiographical memory. Autobiographical memory stores two main kinds of information – personal facts and the nature of major lifetime periods. Autobiographic memory also retains memory of significant and sometimes emotional experiences from our life. The stored knowledge, or facts, that we have acquired about the world is held in semantic memory. The final type of memory, procedural memory, is skills or actions that have been learnt through practice and become automatic.

Research developed by Dr Susan Pickering using the Working Memory Test Battery for Children demonstrated that it is working memory capacity in general that limits children’s abilities to learn. The reason that this occurs is due to the overloading of the working memory which will impair learning as the child is either forced to guess, a strategy that will more than likely lead to errors, or abandon the task before it is completed. Assessment of children’s working memory abilities very early in their school career provides a highly effective way of identifying individuals who are at risk of making poor academic progress. “Early identification is important, as it allows the opportunity for prompt intervention that can minimise the adverse consequences of poor working memory capacity on learning” (Gathercole, 2008). Recent research proved that only 25% of teachers picked up early warning signs of Working Memory failure, which would inevitably have detrimental consequences. Assessments such as the AWMA test are available to assess children’s working memory however Elliott and Gathercole (2008) created seven principles to aid children with poor working memory that will in turn allow, “learning to take place within a rich network of support that compensates for poor working memory capacity”.

Recognition

Firstly they highlight the need for teachers to recognise working memory failures. Warning signs that the working memory load should be reduced include incomplete recall, failure to follow instructions, place-keeping errors and task abandonment.

Monitoring and Evaluating

Furthermore the teacher should monitor the child by assessing warning signs discussed previously and by communicating with the child using questioning and prompts – “What are you going to do next?” The practitioner should evaluate the working demands of learning activities such as the length, content and level of challenge of the task. Consider how much you are asking/expecting the child to remember such as a set of lengthy instructions or unrelated lists and break these into chunks to aid the child.

Reduction and Repetition

If necessary the teacher should reduce the working memory load. Ways in which the teacher can do this include reducing the amount of material to be stored, increasing meaningfulness and familiarity, re-structuring multi-step tasks into separate steps and provide memory aids. The teacher should be prepared to repeat instructions.

Memory Aids

Finally the teacher should encourage the use of memory aids and develop the child’s own personal strategies for managing their working memory. Memory aids include number lines, teacher notes/instructions on the whiteboard, wall charts and well thought out classroom displays. However children should be able to practice using these tools with minimal working memory load before they apply the skill on more demanding tasks.

On reflection I wish I had read more about this in first year prior to my placement. Naively I expected the children to remember all of my instructions and provided them with activities that exceeded all pupils’ working memories. In future practice I will always write step-by-step instructions on the whiteboard, provide memory aids such as number squares or words lists and ensure displays aid learning.

Have a look at my Working Memory Pinterest board where I will be pinning materials that I think are useful for Working Memory. How would you assess and combat poor working memory? Have you seen any good strategies during placement to aid memory?

References and Additional Reading:

Anderson, J. (2000) Learning and Memory: An Integrated Approach. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley

Gathercole, S. & Alloway, T. (2007) Understanding Working Memory: A Classroom Guide. Available at: https://www.york.ac.uk/res/wml/Classroom%20guide.pdf [Accessed: 21/12/15]

Gathercole, S. (2008) Working Memory and Learning: A practical guide for Teachers. London: SAGE Publications

Alloway, T. (n.d) Alloway’s Guide to Working Memory. Available at: http://junglememory.com/ckeditor_assets/attachments/67/JM-Booklet-3.pdf

 

Schools – are they just an educational conveyor belt?

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Following discussion in a recent lecture about the function of schools in modern day society, I have reflected upon my views of formal education in Britain. Despite considering this during our first year study of sociology, I believe looking at global education systems, within the 2CM5 module, and through research into the proposed changes of Scottish Education in the near future has changed my views to an extent.

Before starting my degree I had seen primary and secondary education as two separate entities with different aims. I will never forget my experiences and memories made within primary school. I enjoyed every day I went to school – with the exception of Sports Day (and the troubles of being vertically challenged and finding a suitable partner for the three legged race) – because I knew that all members of staff supported us and our developmental needs were catered for, regardless of how large or small they might be. Lessons were always engaging and inspiring and our emotional and social wellbeing was at the heart of the school. Secondary school, however, was a completely different story. Within a month of attending high school, I was downtrodden by the ethos that centred around attainment and who was ‘intelligent’ and who was ‘thick’ which was made clear by some members of staff who did not ‘have time for “silly” questions’ or who were too busy reading off a powerpoint slide to even look for raised hands.

My opinion was altered during 1CM2, our first year Education Studies module, which focused more specifically on sociological, psychological and philosophical theories on the subject. Durkheim’s theory of Functionalism, which was addressed within the module, suggested that education had the main purposes of reinforcing social solidarity, maintaining social role and to maintain the division of labour. I had questioned this throughout my first year, accepting it as a theory however not fully understanding how this socialisation process had been prominent throughout my education from 3-18. It wasn’t until recently, when discussing Early Years development, that I appreciated this forced nature of socialisation. As our lecturer highlighted, in nurseries children are given the freedom to play when and where they want; they can make as much noise as they desire; they can explore and make meaning through their experiences and most importantly, can enjoy being children. However the transition to primary school is completely new to these children. Firstly they are expected to stay seated for long periods of time at a desk or on an uncomfortable carpeted area with a teacher looming above them. They are expected to remain silent or raise their hand to ask questions. Their playtime is limited to interval and lunchtime. Finally they are unable to make meaning from their play as the learning is curriculum based and during this “critical period”, reading schemes and phonics schemes are rigorously followed. This is evidently a means of socialising pupils that I had never considered before.

Another issue that has been brought to our attention is the forced cognitive development of pupils in the Early Years. In Scandinavian countries, formal schooling does not begin until children are between the ages of six to seven years old unlike Britain where children can walk through school doors as early as four years old. In Sweden and Norway, pupils are introduced to early learning experiences in pre-schools where they engage in meaningful outdoor learning. Furthermore, their learning environment mirrors home life unlike British schools that can sometimes feel like a multi-coloured storage box rammed with desks and limited areas to move. In Scandinavian countries, children are not introduced to literacy activities until they enter school at seven years of age – because this is when they are cognitively ready – and the attainment reflects the success of this methodology as Sweden sits at the top of the global literacy league table. Despite evidence suggesting that Britain would benefit from a move towards rising school entrance age, politicians seem to avoid the truth.

These political views seem to have a considerable impact on the functionalist role of schools. Why are we ignoring evidence proving that children should have time to develop through play and we should introduce them to literacy and academia when they are cognitively and physically ready? Finances? Economic necessity? Early in September it was announced that Nicola Sturgeon had plans to introduce standardised testing into the Scottish curriculum, one that was designed to move away from testing and attainment. Although I am aware that 32 councils across Scotland utilise different forms of assessment, I see this standardised testing as yet another functionalist system that will cause forced cognitive development on young children and move away from the ideology of CfE. I believe at this early stage we should be focusing on progressing children as individuals, not as a group target to be attained. Although I was taught under the 5-14 curriculum that utilised standardised testing to identify progression and I did not feel pressured by this system, I cannot speak for those who struggled in mathematics or literacy and were pushed by desperate teachers who needed to ensure the success of their so-called “underachieving” pupils.

Early socialisation and development of literacy and numeracy in the early years, assessment and other political drivers make me feel as though we are creating ‘little adults’ and not giving children the time and space that they require to be children. Although I appreciate the need for these systems currently, I hope to see change in the future of Education and that educational research can move us towards a more personalised education where development is seen as an individual attribute and not classified by attainment.

References

Bartlett, S. and Burton, D. (2012) Introduction to Education Studies. 3rd edn. London: Sage.

Bignold, W. And Gayton, L. (eds.) (2009) Global Issues and Comparative Education. Exeter:Learning Matters

Keatch, B. (2015) Early Years – Sweden [Lecture to MA (Hons) Education Year 2], ED21004 Educational Studies: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on Education. Dundee University. Tuesday 29th September 2015.

McIvor, J. (2015) Scottish Education: The return of Standardised testing? Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-34108172 [Accessed: Tuesday 6th October 2015]

Sweden heads new literacy league. (no date) Available at: www.unicef.org/pon96/inlitera.htm [Accessed: Tuesday 6th October 2015]