Tag Archives: Early Years Education

Fun with “Fonics”

Early literacy development has always been a passion of mine. I was an extremely avid reader as a young child and throughout my primary education and I always hoped to inspire this enthusiasm for literature within my classroom. However since my learning from life and early years placements, I have found that this overall interest has become more focused on the development of phonological awareness – so much so, I will be writing my thesis around this topic. Despite little engagement with my blog this academic year, I thought I would use my e-portfolio as a means of recording my current understanding of my academic reading as well as sharing some activities I have observed/ used that enhance phonological development.

Phonological awareness is the ability to identify, recall and use sounds within language. This skill is developed during phonics lessons, where children are taught the relationship between printed letters and symbols and their corresponding sounds in spoken language (Jolliffe and Waugh, 2015). However there are a number of approaches to teaching phonics such as analytic phonics, embedded phonics, analogy phonics and phonics-through-spelling – and these conflicting methods cause much educational debate (Graaff et al, 2009).

In Scotland, phonological awareness is developed using a systematic synthetic phonics approach (Johnston and Watson, 2005). Synthetic phonics involves the teaching of letter sounds and then learning to blend these sounds to construct words (Johnston and Watson, 2005). This is taught systematically due to the complex nature of English language and its phonetic irregularities (Solity and Vousden, 2009). In Scottish schools this approach is mostly supported by council funded phonics schemes, such as Read, Write Inc. or Jolly Phonics.

There is a wealth of research that demonstrates the successes of systematic synthetic phonics programmes in improving outcomes for Scottish pupils. However, there are a number of psycholinguists, who are in favour of a whole language approach to early literacy development, and consequently raise a number of important issues surrounding phonics schemes. Firstly, Solity and Vousden (2009, p471) argue that, “the emphasis on teaching sight vocabulary and phonics skills is seen to be potentially seriously damaging for children by changing the nature of reading from understanding, appreciating and evaluating what is read, to memorising phonics rules and decoding.” To exemplify this, research conducted by Strauss and Altwerger (2007, cited by Gooch and Lambirth, 2010, p4) demonstrated that pupils, who achieved high scores in phonics testing, had a lower ability to comprehend reading texts than pupils who scored ‘poorly’ in the phonics screening.

Furthermore a number of authors (Gooch and Lambirth, 2010; Goodman and Smith, 1971 cited by Solity and Vousden, 2009, p471) express concern around the nature of reading schemes that do not offer rich, engaging texts. However as highlighted by the National Reading Panel, systematic phonics instruction should be combined with other reading instruction to establish a well-balanced reading curriculum.

From my experiences, I can say that a well-balanced reading curriculum is not always achieved and it is often easy for practitioners to follow phonics/reading schemes too rigorously. During placements I have been swept along the phonics schemes, happily following pre-planned lessons to minimise my workload and I became blind to the associated disengaged faces and subsequent behaviour challenges. Only on reflection have I realised the importance of becoming resilient and using autonomy to judge the appropriateness of following schemes and when to stray from pre-planned activities. Of course these schemes are extremely beneficial and give practitioners guidance however, since learning more about the components of synthetic phonics I have identified some activities that I believe are more engaging and interactive than some I have observed within phonics programmes.

Phonics Fans

Phonics fans are a simple yet effective way to teach phonics skills interactively and serve as a fantastic assessment tool for teachers. Like number fans, the templates can be cut, laminated and held together by split rings to be used in a variety of ways.

To enhance decoding and listening skills choose a simple CVC word and say it aloud for the children to hear. Ask the children to use their fingers to “pinch the sounds” in their head. For example the word dog would be d-o-g. Then ask children to show you the initial/vowel/end sound in the word or alternatively spell the whole word using the fans. This activity could be used as a whole class warm up along side daily speed sounds training, or as a collaborative activity within phonics partners.

Phonics Finger Twister

Fun ‘twist’ on a well-known game, finger twister can be used to practice segmenting and blending of phonetically regular words or tricky, sight word vocabulary. Using the template, type a CVC/sight word onto each circle on the spinner board then print onto A3 and laminate. Alternatively you could laminate the page and use a whiteboard pen to write the words if you want to change the vocabulary on a regular basis.

Place a paper clip on the centre of the board as a spinner and ask the pupil to read the word that the clip lands on. If answered correctly, the pupil places their finger on a circle of that same colour on the “finger board”.

Finger Twister – Spinner Board made by UoD_HJWard

Finger Twister – Finger Board made by UoD_HJWard

Listening Stations

I appreciate that not every school is fortunate enough to have iPads but for those who are this activity could be really beneficial to incorporate into teaching – so long as pupils were taught to use the technology responsibly. On the voice recordings tool on the iPad, record yourself saying different words with long pauses in between. For example, “Number 1. Dog *Wait 5 seconds* Dog *Wait 5 seconds* Number 2….” Etc. Ask pupils to write the words they hear using the phonetic spelling in their literacy jotters.

Although this is a traditional dictation activity, pupils will find the iPads exciting and it would also be great as a literacy station during guided reading. Headphone splitters can be bought for cheap online and school headphones are generally available in the ICT suites.

Roll a Word Board Game

Using the board game template below, type a phonetically regular/ sight word into each box in the grid. Pupils will roll two dice and find the corresponding tile on the grid. If they say the word correctly, they place a counter on the board. This game works best in groups of two or three, with each player using a different coloured set of counters. The winner of the game is the play with the most counters on the board.

Roll a Word Board Game made by UoD_HJWard

Spin a Word

This is a really good activity to practice segmenting and blending and identifying nonsense words. Pupils spin a paperclip to find a ‘word family’ to add to the letters below. Once they have written the letters, pupils blend the sounds together and circle the word if it is a real word. For extra brownie points, see if pupils can use the real words in a sentence.

Spin a Word Game made by UoD_HJWard

What a lot of nonsense! Circle Time Activity

This is a phonics-based alternative to pass the parcel that practices phonological skills and identifying nonsense words. In a box have a range of laminated phonetically regular and sight vocabulary words alongside some nonsense words. Arrange pupils so they are sat in a circle and in the centre of the circle place two hula-hoops – one for real words and one for nonsense words. Play music and ask pupils to pass the box around. Pause the music after some time and ask the pupil holding the box to choose a word and read it to the class. The pupil must then decide if it is a nonsense word or a real word and place it in the corresponding hoop. For added comprehension ask the person on their left or right if they can use the real word in a sentence.

Phonics Splat

Laminate a range of phonics words/sight words and blue tak them to the board (it may be helpful to use these as flashcards initially to get pupils familiar with the vocabulary being used). Ask two pupils to come up to the board and give them a fly splatter – for added fun – and shout out a word that is stuck to the board. The pupils must ‘splat’ for the correct word and whoever does it the quickest wins.

I really like these minibeast sight words from Twinkl Resources and they fit in with the ‘splatting’ theme!

These are just a few of many exciting activities that can be incorporated into phonics lessons. Pinterest has a wealth of them and you can follow my phonics board here. From what I have read so far about phonics for my thesis, I have learnt that it is crucial to ensure that all activities are varied and you don’t get stuck into a routine with your phonics teaching. Furthermore make sure that pupils are getting exposure to a range of different texts beyond their reading scheme!!

Do you have any activities you like to use for phonics? Please share in the comments below.

References

Gooch, K. and Lambirth, A. (2010) Teaching Early Reading and Phonics. London: SAGE Publications.

Graaff, S., Bosman, A., Hasselman, F. and Verhoeven, L. (2009) “Benefits of systematic phonics instruction”, Scientific Studies of Reading, 13(4), pp.318-333.

Johnston, R. and Watson, J. (2005) The Effects of Synthetic Phonics Teaching on Reading and Spelling Attainment: A 7 Year Longitudinal Study. Available at: http://www.gov.scot/Resource/Doc/36496/0023582.pdf [Accessed: 06.03.17]

Jolliffe, W., Waugh, D. and Carrs, A. (2015) Teaching Systematic Synthetic Phonics in Primary Schools. 2nd ed. London: SAGE Publications.

Solity, J. and Vousden, J. (2009) “Real books vs. reading schemes: a new perspective from instructional psychology”, Educational Psychology, 29(4), pp.469-511.

Let’s Make Space for Outdoor Learning

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Outdoor learning was never a big focus throughout my primary years despite the large field and beautiful Moray Coast on which the school was situated. It was never a topic that was negotiated within our classes and I remember looking out of the window on numerous occasions wishing I was running around in the fresh air near the salty waves rather than stuck in a sweaty, over crowded classroom. Now on reflection I consider the numerous educational experiences that could be gained by exploring the area I grew up in and how important I consider outdoor learning to be.

The topic of outdoor learning has come to my attention recently for a number of reasons. During our second year Education Studies module, we explored the nature of the Swedish education system in which outdoor play is a prominent feature. However having a more significant impact was the knowledge I acquired listening to a recent interview on the radio regarding pupil health and the growth of technology in early years children. For both of these reasons I really wanted to write about the advantages of stepping out of the classroom comfort zone.

The Swedish education system is one of the most talked about in the world and early childhood education and care in Sweden is known to offer exemplar practice. This is due to the combination of pedagogical approaches and unique organization that contribute to its high ranking in the literacy table worldwide. A significant part of Swedish pre-school education is outdoor learning and the pedagogical ideology of Froebel’s Kindergarten. Froebel was a German educationalist and his Kindergarten system grew internationally as an educational model. His kindergarten system consisted of gifts and occupations. The play materials were called gifts and the learning activities were occupations. His system allowed children to compare, test, and explore. His philosophy also consisted of the principles – free self-activity, creativity, social participation, and motor expression. Outdoor activity provides plenty of opportunities for children to explore and develop the values described in the Swedish curriculum document.

I do not believe that CfE emphasizes the opportunities outdoor learning can provide enough, as this is not a regular occurrence in the practice I have observed. However Scottish Government outline the purpose of outdoor learning when they state, “Well-constructed and well-planned outdoor learning helps develop the skills of enquiry, critical thinking and reflection necessary for our children and young people to meet the social, economic and environmental challenges of life in the 21st century. Outdoor learning connects children and young people with the natural world, with our built heritage and our culture and society, and encourages lifelong involvement and activity in Scotland’s outdoors” (Education Scotland, p7)

While outdoor learning is advantageous for our education, it is also important for our children’s health. Over the past few years, research has proven that children are becoming deficient in essential vitamins, especially vitamin D. “Vitamin D is a fat-soluble compound essential for bone growth and mineralisation during childhood. It is produced in the skin following exposure to ultraviolet B light with a small amount occurring naturally in foods such as oily fish, eggs and meat. Without vitamin D the body is unable to effectively process the minerals calcium and phosphorous; essential for bone growth and maturation during childhood” (BBC, 2011). Coincidentally the increase in child technology use has also increased during this period and therefore children are not going outside and exploring like in previous years. Vitamin D deficiency is responsible for bone related illnesses such as rickets, which has also recently increased, and also asthma and depression. Therefore it goes without saying that we should be encouraging our pupils to be out in the fresh air when the weather permits it to prevent these illnesses and promote health and wellbeing.

So how can we make the most out of the outdoors?

Outdoor learning is a useful tool for teachers in many different areas. Firstly, the environment provides many opportunities for cross-curricular links. In my local community (Morayshire) there are a multitude of experiences I could provide my pupils with that would make learning more engaging. Burghead, a small fishing village, 5 minutes away from my own primary school, has a rich historical background of Pictish and Viking eras and was home the Burghead Pictish fort of which the remains are kept in the local visitor centre and the Elgin Museum. Using this environment to explore the history of the Pics would be an engaging activity and could create potential literacy and art activities. The location of the Moray Firth would also offer many opportunities for learning in subjects such as science, exploring the nature and wildlife or the local oil industry, expressive arts, using the picturesque views to spark imagination and also social subjects such as geography and modern studies.

Image taken from http://hopemanhistory.org/1989-hopeman-from-the-air

Those who live in towns or cities could use their environment as a means of enhancing literacy in the early years by taking pupils on an “environmental print walk”. Whitehead (2007, p54) argues that the first text children experience as emergent readers is the print that surrounds them in their everyday lives including advertisements, packaging, road signs and symbols, and these are known as ‘environmental print’. Therefore taking pupils on a walk around the streets will provide opportunities to observe print in an engaging way.

Although these are only some of the many ways you can manipulate the outdoors to suit your pupil’s educational needs, I believe it demonstrates the importance of incorporating it into regular practice. With this considered I will aim to utilise the environment as much as possible during my future placements and with my own class to enhance educational experiences and promote health and wellbeing within my classroom.

What opportunities can you identify within your local community that would enhance learning? Are there any other advantages or disadvantages of outdoor learning?

References:

Education Scotland (n.d) Outdoor Learning: Practical Guidance, Ideas and Support for Teachers and Practitioners in Scotland. Available at: http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/Images/OutdoorLearningSupport_tcm4-675958.pdf [Accessed 28/11/15]

Hopemanhistory.org (n.d) 1989 – Hopeman from the air – Hopeman History. Available at: http://hopemanhistory.org/1989-hopeman-from-the-air [Accessed 28/11/15]

Reed, J. (2011) Children are at risk of getting rickets, says doctor. Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/health-12357382 [Accessed 28/12/15]

Whitehead, M. (2007) Developing Language and Literacy with Young Children. London: Paul Chapman Publishers.

Learning and Memory

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So now exams are over and the Christmas holidays have begun, what better time to start blogging again. I’m annoyed at myself for my lack of posts last semester however with work and the constant reminder that we had an exam looming, updating my blog was pushed right to the back of my mind. With that said, I learned a lot during this semester which I aim to reflect upon in my future, and more regular posts.

Within 2CM5, our Education Studies module, we studied three topics of psychology – Attribution theory, Intelligence and Memory. I found the topic of Memory to have the most influence on my understanding and also educational psychology so found myself reading more and more into this field. Learning and memory, and the relationship between these, is a topic of psychology that has been researched for several decades. Spregner (1999) stated, “The only evidence we have of learning is memory” and this demonstrates that the two subjects go hand in hand. Recent research has identified that poor memory is linked to poor academic attainment and therefore it is of significant importance for teachers to be able to apply their knowledge of memory to intervene effectively to raise attainment.

Ebbinghaus was one of the first theorists who considered human memory. He started a tradition of research that became the dominant paradigm for the study in this field. Later, in 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed a new model of memory that reflected the ideology of Ebbinghaus. The terms short-term and long-term memory had been discussed throughout this period, however Atkinson and Shiffrin “crystallized these ideas into a precise theory” (Anderson, 2000). Short-term memory was created as new information was retrieved from the environment and through rehearsal it could either be entered into the long-term memory or disposed of. Although this theory has been proven to have some flaws, Atkinson and Shiffrin provided a basis for our understanding of memory today.

The terms short-term memory and long-term memory are still present today however and these will be discussed as two separate entities. Short-term memory refers to the situations in which an individual has to store material. Short-term memory is also linked to working memory, as the individual applies or manipulates the stored material, within a short period of time. Gathercole (2008) describes working memory as “a mental workspace or jotting pad that is used to store important information in the course of our everyday lives.” Working memory is a system of interlinked memory components that are located in different parts of the brain – verbal and visuo-spatial, which exist as short-term memory components, and the central executive that controls focus and is involved in the higher-level mental processes required to manipulate material for working memory. The amount of information that can be held in working memory for even a short period of time is strictly limited and if this limit is exceeded, we will forget at least some of what we are trying to remember. There is a personal limit to working memory, with each individual having a relatively fixed capacity. Forgetting information from working memory is very different from forgetting, for example, where you parked your car. In this case you can mentally retraced your steps to aid memory however when information in the working memory is lost, it is gone for good. The loss of material within the working memory, known as working memory failure, has a detrimental impact on education and this will be discussed later in this post.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F5Ehe3KVGmY

Long-term memory is the memory of past experiences and knowledge gained over long periods of time. According to Gathercole (2008) there are four types of long-term memory – episodic memory, autobiographical, semantic and procedural memory. Episodic memory stores memories for specific events in the recent past – it is best at retaining the most important or notable features of events. Unless discussed or reflected upon, these mundane routinely tasks are generally forgotten unless they were a non-routine event that may be stored in a more permanent system – autobiographical memory. Autobiographical memory stores two main kinds of information – personal facts and the nature of major lifetime periods. Autobiographic memory also retains memory of significant and sometimes emotional experiences from our life. The stored knowledge, or facts, that we have acquired about the world is held in semantic memory. The final type of memory, procedural memory, is skills or actions that have been learnt through practice and become automatic.

Research developed by Dr Susan Pickering using the Working Memory Test Battery for Children demonstrated that it is working memory capacity in general that limits children’s abilities to learn. The reason that this occurs is due to the overloading of the working memory which will impair learning as the child is either forced to guess, a strategy that will more than likely lead to errors, or abandon the task before it is completed. Assessment of children’s working memory abilities very early in their school career provides a highly effective way of identifying individuals who are at risk of making poor academic progress. “Early identification is important, as it allows the opportunity for prompt intervention that can minimise the adverse consequences of poor working memory capacity on learning” (Gathercole, 2008). Recent research proved that only 25% of teachers picked up early warning signs of Working Memory failure, which would inevitably have detrimental consequences. Assessments such as the AWMA test are available to assess children’s working memory however Elliott and Gathercole (2008) created seven principles to aid children with poor working memory that will in turn allow, “learning to take place within a rich network of support that compensates for poor working memory capacity”.

Recognition

Firstly they highlight the need for teachers to recognise working memory failures. Warning signs that the working memory load should be reduced include incomplete recall, failure to follow instructions, place-keeping errors and task abandonment.

Monitoring and Evaluating

Furthermore the teacher should monitor the child by assessing warning signs discussed previously and by communicating with the child using questioning and prompts – “What are you going to do next?” The practitioner should evaluate the working demands of learning activities such as the length, content and level of challenge of the task. Consider how much you are asking/expecting the child to remember such as a set of lengthy instructions or unrelated lists and break these into chunks to aid the child.

Reduction and Repetition

If necessary the teacher should reduce the working memory load. Ways in which the teacher can do this include reducing the amount of material to be stored, increasing meaningfulness and familiarity, re-structuring multi-step tasks into separate steps and provide memory aids. The teacher should be prepared to repeat instructions.

Memory Aids

Finally the teacher should encourage the use of memory aids and develop the child’s own personal strategies for managing their working memory. Memory aids include number lines, teacher notes/instructions on the whiteboard, wall charts and well thought out classroom displays. However children should be able to practice using these tools with minimal working memory load before they apply the skill on more demanding tasks.

On reflection I wish I had read more about this in first year prior to my placement. Naively I expected the children to remember all of my instructions and provided them with activities that exceeded all pupils’ working memories. In future practice I will always write step-by-step instructions on the whiteboard, provide memory aids such as number squares or words lists and ensure displays aid learning.

Have a look at my Working Memory Pinterest board where I will be pinning materials that I think are useful for Working Memory. How would you assess and combat poor working memory? Have you seen any good strategies during placement to aid memory?

References and Additional Reading:

Anderson, J. (2000) Learning and Memory: An Integrated Approach. 2nd ed. Chichester: Wiley

Gathercole, S. & Alloway, T. (2007) Understanding Working Memory: A Classroom Guide. Available at: https://www.york.ac.uk/res/wml/Classroom%20guide.pdf [Accessed: 21/12/15]

Gathercole, S. (2008) Working Memory and Learning: A practical guide for Teachers. London: SAGE Publications

Alloway, T. (n.d) Alloway’s Guide to Working Memory. Available at: http://junglememory.com/ckeditor_assets/attachments/67/JM-Booklet-3.pdf

1+ 2 = ?

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Compulsory education in Modern Foreign Languages (MFL) has been high on my list of desired movements within Scottish Education for several years now. So it comes with no surprise that I was overwhelmed with joy when Scottish Government announced the upcoming 1+2 language policy in 2011. The 1+2 policy, proposed to come into place in 2020, aims to broaden children’s horizons and future prospects through the introduction of an additional two MFL, on top of their mother tongue (L1). This will be achieved through the introduction of the first MFL (L2) beginning in primary one and will merge the second language (L3) during the middle and upper stages of primary school.

My exposure to MFL in the primary school was very limited; in fact I left primary school knowing a few basic French greetings and a handful of French songs – which were certainly unrelated to my education! To me, learning a new language, at this stage, was not on my agenda at all. It wasn’t until I went to secondary school where I was exposed to MFL in great depth and it completely changed my views on learning a new language. I was immersed in a new culture, new sounds, new punctuation – new everything! Due to my enthusiasm, learning language became my strength so I sat examinations in Intermediate 2 French and Spanish followed by Higher French. I would have chosen more languages had there not been restrictions on the balance of curricular areas when choosing subjects. This year, as my elective module, I have chosen to learn Italian in order to broaden my language knowledge further and I intend to take part in the MFL elective in third year with the intention of specialising in this field.

But enough about me!

In this post I hope to analyse, to an extent, the 1+2 approach and how it will be advantageous, and potentially disadvantageous, when it comes into place in 2020.

I believe there will be several positive outcomes from the introduction of the 1+2 policy. Firstly children will develop a love of language learning, so long as it is taught in an engaging and inventive way, and will be able to use this transferable skill later in life. Indeed Education Scotland outlines the aims of the policy and how it applies to the four capacities when they state, “Through learning new languages young people can become successful learners with opportunities relating to working and travelling abroad; confident individuals able to communicate in more than one language; effective contributors to a changing world with an understanding of Scotland’s relationship to other countries; and responsible citizens with an awareness of cultures and languages in addition to their own” (p6).

Although I believe that this new policy has economic reasoning at the centre, to develop a work force that can push Scotland’s global success through use of language, there are cognitive advantages that can arise from language learning in the early years. Children who speak English as an Additional Language (EAL) for example, have developed several skills in advance of monolingual children. A common perception is that the brain has a limited capacity to learn language, hence if a child has, for example, Polish as their first language, their English and Polish language skills will be hindered because of this “limited capacity”. However research has shown that the brain has an unlimited capacity for learning language and that it is easier to pick up a new language earlier in life due to a child’s mental flexibility. The skills that bilingual children have already acquired include “greater awareness of how language operates [which] can help with the development of literacy skills, especially decoding, and with the learning of other languages; enhanced problem solving abilities, which are useful for maths and ICT; heightened creative potential, which may display itself in writing and critical understanding and an awareness of the importance of context and audience in language use” (p4). If these skills are evident within bilingual children I believe it is clear to see the cognitive advantage of introducing our children to language within the Early Years too.

However as I am keen to pursue a career in the Early Years at present, I have reflected upon some of the disadvantages this early language development could incur. In a recent input within the 2CM6 module, where we are discovering some of the pedagogical strategies of teaching Spanish within the primary classroom, our lecturer pointed out a very important point – the phonemes in any MFL will differ from English phonemes hence we should be careful when demonstrating written forms. In English, we have 44 phonemes which children are expected to learn within the first few years of education, in Spanish, for example, only 24 exist but the pronunciation of these phonemes differ greatly. How are we expected to teach the phonemes of English without merging those existing in the chosen MFL too? It may be possible to teach children to speak and listen in a MFL during the first few years of school before introducing reading and writing skills to prevent confusion. However Scottish Government have provided a number of resources for the Early Years which include animated stories with written dialogue hence shows that Government expect us to introduce reading and writing. I believe this needs to be carefully considered before the guidelines for teaching MFL are updated to accommodate the 1+2 scheme.

Another factor that has been heavily criticised, yet it still a valid argument, is the impact this will have on school staff as not all teachers have experience in MFL beyond first and second year of secondary school. This of course is not enough to be confident in presenting a MFL lesson to children in P6 or P7. For this reason I believe compulsory modules in MFL should be introduced in teacher education so our future teachers are equipped with the same amount of knowledge in language development as they have in mathematics or literacy. Luckily on our course we are given the option to develop our language skills through our elective and compulsory languages module.

Although the implementation of the 1+2 policy is still a few years away, I am keen to see how schools move towards integrating this into their curriculum and how Government are able to provide resources and appropriate training to make the most out of the program.

References

Belgutay, J (2011) Young Scots must rise to languages challenge. Available at: https://www.tes.com/article.aspx?storycode=6088675 [Accessed: 15th October 2015]

Education Scotland (no date) Resources – Support materials – Learning and Teaching. Available at: http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/learningandteaching/curriculumareas/languages/modernlanguages/supportmaterials/resources/index.asp [Accessed: 15th October 2015]

Kanaki, A (2015) Speaking and Listening. [Lecture to MA Education Year 2] ED21005 Languages. University of Dundee. 8th October.

Keatch, B (2015) Reading in the Early Years. [Lecture to MA Education Year 2] ED21005 Languages. University of Dundee. 6th October.

Scottish Executive (2005) Learning in 2+ Languages. Available at: http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/images/LearningInTwoPlusLanguages_tcm4-306089.pdf [Accessed: 15th October]

Scottish Government (2012) Language Learning in Scotland A 1+2 Approach: Reports and Recommendations. Edinburgh: Scottish Government

University of Surrey (no date) Spanish phonemes and phonetic transcription. Available at: http://www.fahs.surrey.ac.uk/languages/spanish-phonetics/advanced-phonetics-7-2/spanish-phonemes.htm [Accessed: 15th October 2015]

Schools – are they just an educational conveyor belt?