Category Archives: My educational philosophy

L4L Placement: Reflection

1 Reply

Following what seemed like a never-ending pile of paperwork for my placement portfolio and an unfortunate trip to A&E, I have had little time to write a blog post that I felt did my placement justice. My intention was to blog throughout my time at the school however I was so busy that I needed time to collect my thoughts before combusting on the web! Consequently I gave myself a little bit of down time following my Viva before blogging about what I can only describe as the most rewarding but challenging experience of my teacher training to date.

I have already blogged about my experience in the pastoral team where my main responsibilities included ELSA sessions and promoting health and wellbeing throughout the school. With this in mind, I aim to describe my time in the different classes I was lucky to work in and how this experience has influenced my professional attitude.

 

Week One

Throughout the four weeks, following the Easter holiday, I worked in four different classes that allowed me to experience a range of different needs. During the first week, I was placed in a KS2 classroom where pupils had severe learning difficulties or profound and multiple learning difficulties. None of the children were verbal and they each had a very unique way of communicating.

Communication became a very strong focus throughout my placement as I found myself becoming more and more confident using non-verbal communication and sensory stimuli to motivate pupils to engage in communication. Initially I felt apprehensive as I did not know if I would be able to understand or be understood by pupils and meet their needs however after observation and getting as involved as I could, I was able to respond to the children confidently.

Most pupils communicated making small noises and murmurs and their body language indicated their emotions. For example, one pupil vocalised and smiled when he liked something or agreed with a member of staff and remained still and silent if he disagreed or disliked something that was being communicated to him. However not all pupils understood intentionality, that is when a person communicates either vocally or physically, with intention to provoke a response. I did a lot of one-one work with a pupil at this stage whilst other activities were being conducted with other pupils. An example of an activity I conducted to introduce the concept of intentionality was through massage. I tried a range of massage techniques on her hands in order to gain an idea of what she liked and disliked. Following every technique, I placed my hands in front of her hands at a distance and waited for a response. Eventually she realised that in order for me to continue the massage she must place her hands in my hands before I begun once again. Once she had realised this, I removed my hands and placed them in front of her, she then reached out to grasp my hands. This process demonstrated her the beginning of her understanding of the intentional communication.

Language acquisition has always been a topic of psychology that I have had a lot of interest in. Consequently, the development of intentionality and seeing for myself the progression of language acquisition in children with speech, language and communication delay was really fascinating. Throughout the placement I continued to observe different methods of communication and by the end of the four weeks I had been involved in Makaton, eye gazing, the pictorial exchange communication system (PECS) and AAC technology associated with eye gaze and PECS.

Week Two

The second week, possibly the most challenging of the four, was in an autism provision classroom. Once again, all communication needs were very different however all pupils used the pictorial exchange communication system to enhance their communication. PECS is a form of AAC and is made up of a range a symbols and words that allow the communicator to form complex phrases. PECS supports speech, but does not replace it. Once the symbols have been aligned on the PECS board, the pupils point to the various symbols and verbalise these to form a spoken sentence.

Although communication was a huge part of this classroom, due to the nature of the class I found myself observing behaviour and responses to the learning environment more than communication. I intend to write a separate post on autism provision later when I have had more time to research the associated behaviours and meeting their needs. I found that one week was not long enough to fully understand the pupils and respond appropriately and consequently I aim to find work experience in another autism provision unit to build on my understanding further. Despite this, I feel like I would know how to aid a pupil with a diagnosis of ASC in a mainstream classroom a lot more confidently by providing a high level of structure and low stimulus environment.

Week Three

During the penultimate week I was placed in an EYFS class. The EYFS environment was highly influenced by the likes of the Froebel and Reggio Emilia philosophy. There are certainly aspects of this practice I would consider using within my early years placement next year however there were also a number of factors that I would perhaps alter in order to enhance the play based learning. Consequently I will blog about this and how it impacted upon my educational philosophy in a future post.

Week Four

Similar to week one, my final week was with a KS1 PMLD classroom. Once again the pupils were non-verbal and as they were younger, their communication was a lot less advanced to those in the previous week.

Developing intentionality and cause and effect were key learning outcomes throughout the week. Switches were used frequently in activities to show the consequence of actions, known as cause and effect. An activity that demonstrated the development of intentionality within this class was baking treacle tarts. Pupils operated the switch in order to use the blender held by a member of staff. When they pressed and maintained the hold, the blender would turn on and when the pupil let go it would stop. Sensory stimuli are key to encouraging communication and participation in switch use. The teacher’s role is to facilitate opportunities for the use of switching or symbols throughout the day using a range of strategies.

Impact on my personal and professional attitudes

My learning for life placement has had a considerable impact on my educational philosophy and also my personal attitudes towards SEN teaching. I began the placement thinking that it would be beneficial to learn about the different SEN and how pupil’s individual needs are facilitated in a learning environment in order to apply this to a mainstream setting where I intend to teach. As a result of this placement I have developed a passion for the SEN setting and the rewarding nature of teaching and learning pupils with PMLD and SLD. Consequently I am now considering specialising in SEN following my probation year when I begin my Masters degree with the intent on teaching in an enhanced provision unit.

It is very hard to pinpoint one key aspect that I feel my placement has addressed and enhanced due to the diversity I experienced. As a result I revisited my placement proposal to see how the placement addressed my expectations of the placement and identified key learning that I will research in the next few months.

Firstly by exploring special needs education through observation, professional dialogue and academic reading I have developed my understanding of the needs of the pupils and the impact this has on curriculum content, communication and assessing academic progress etc. Communication has been the biggest focus for me throughout the placement as I was amazed by the variety of AAC that I had not even heard of before. I was able to communicate to all pupils in the classes regardless of whether they were verbal or non-verbal and was able to meet their needs accordingly. Following my placement I intend to do a course in Makaton signing and research more into PECS and Switching through academic reading.

I have looked into how the National Curriculum differs to the Federation’s ‘Learning Challenge curriculum’ and how this was created to develop an understanding of the processes of curriculum design and developing contexts for learning over the course of the 6 weeks. The major difference was that the child was very much at the centre of the learning and through topical learning each individual’s developmental needs were catered for. Planning and learning outcomes are different for every child and are decided during the annual review, an interagency meeting to discuss pupil progress. Consequently a baking lesson for one child may be focusing on their use of switching and developing an understanding of cause and effect whereas another may be focusing on their ability to reach an object. This means that teachers need to be flexible with lesson plans and understand the best ways to motivate pupils in order to meet their intended outcomes.

I have worked closely alongside the different professionals in order to gain a better understanding of their roles in promoting the well-being of every child and how interdisciplinary practice is achieved in the learning community. The experience has enhanced my understanding of interdisciplinary working and consolidated learning from the 2CM8 module. I have seen the importance of information sharing and experienced some of the boundaries that may be faced, regardless of the integrated facilities.

Another thing I have gained from the placement that I had not identified in my proposal is my ability to nurture. Although I believe I was a very caring teacher, I was always very cautious to be overly nurturing with pupils due to policies that need to be adhered to. In an SEN school, providing a nurturing environment is the teacher’s pivotal role and consequently I had to remove this barrier immediately. Pupils need to be welcomed with a warm, friendly personality in order to feel comfortable. Touch is important to evoke responses from children and develop their communication and therefore should be given with professional judgement. Teachers need to understand the needs of the child immediately and respond to these appropriately. Although the boundaries are different in a mainstream school, I will definitely be more comfortable being nurturing with a child in my future placements.

Following my placement, I will:

  • Begin a course over the duration of the summer holidays in Makaton signing and research other AAC methods through academic reading.
  • Consider ways in which I could support pupil’s emotional wellbeing and develop a nurturing environment.
  • Research best practice in SEN schools through academic reading and journals and build on the learning I gained during my mini ROTR tasks.
  • Continue to work on facilitating effective interdisciplinary practice during future placements, particularly with parents.

L4L Placement: Goleman, Gardner and ELSA?

1 Reply

As mentioned in my previous post, I am utilising my blog as a reflective tool for my Learning from Life placement. My placement is based in an integrated mainstream and special school and I have had the opportunity to work with the pastoral team over the past two weeks to begin my work experience.

Working with the pastoral team has allowed me to experience a wide variety of tasks including safeguarding, interagency practice, working with parents and early intervention, to working with children in order to gather information and promote health and wellbeing. Although a lot of my learning has been through observation and professional dialogue, I have been responsible for:

  • Researching and creating a display to support the implementation of a packed lunch policy.
  • Analysing attendance and lateness data to create a spreadsheet to compare trends and support early intervention.
  • Planning activities for mainstream pupils to highlight the safeguarding team and cyber-bullying procedures.
  • Creating a display to celebrate pupil success.
  • Assisting and conducting nurture sessions during break and lunchtime.
  • Planning British Values project for the School Council.
IMG_6428

Display board in the Main Reception to support the implementation of a packed lunch policy.

P1010987

Role Model display board in the Pastoral office to celebrate pupil success.

Screen Shot 2016-03-26 at 20.33.58

Cyberbullying Leaflet to support the teaching and learning of E-Safety.

Screen Shot 2016-03-26 at 20.34.47

Safeguarding Leaflet for pupil revision. Pupils draw portraits of staff members in the boxes and label members of staff they can go to if they need help.

All of these activities have made a significant contribution to my understanding of health and wellbeing and gathering and analysing information. However the key learning that I believe has had the most influence on my educational philosophy is that gained through observing and independently conducting ELSA sessions.

ELSA stands for ‘emotional literacy support assistant’ and is a one to one strategy to promoting emotional literacy and developing emotional intelligence within pupils.

Intelligence versus Emotional Intelligence

Intelligence can be defined as the capacity to learn from experience, using metacognitive processes to enhance learning, and the ability to adapt to the surrounding environment. There are many theorists who have contributed to this field of study and have changed our perception of what it is to be intelligent.  In early developments in intelligence research, it was seen that intelligence was a single entity that was determined by how well an individual faired in academia. Indeed, Gardner (1993) stated “In the heyday of the psychometric and behaviorist eras, it was generally believed that intelligence was a single entity that was inherited; and that human beings – initially a blank slate – could be trained to learn anything.” However, more recent studies of intelligence have demonstrated that intelligence is more than just academic and take individual skills and learning styles into consideration.

Gardner was one of the most influential theorists to introduce the idea of individual cognitive components and Smith and Smith (1994) described him as the paradigm shifter. His theory of multiple intelligences demonstrated that in addition to the areas of intelligence that had already been identified prior to his research, there were also factors that took social nature and physical ability into account. Gardner identified 8 types of intelligence: visual, linguistic, logical and mathematical, musical, bodily and kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic intelligence.

  • Visual intelligence incorporates an individual’s ability to visualize, recognize and memorize images and their understanding of spatial awareness, or their creativity and eye for detail. A visually intelligent person may be a visual learner and use pictures and diagrams to assist them to learn.
  • A linguistically talented person has sensitivity to written and spoken language; they are able to learn languages and apply this to accomplish certain goals. Gardner considered authors, poets, lawyers and speakers to have a high level of linguistic intelligence.
  • Logical intelligence is similar to the intelligence tested in formal IQ tests and is most commonly associated with mathematical and scientific thinking. It takes an individual’s ability to analyze, formulate and organise information, in addition to mathematical ability.
  • Musical intelligence is quite simply an individual’s ability to recognize, respond to and produce music/sound.
  • Similarly, as the name suggests, bodily and kinesthetic intelligence is concerned with a person’s physical ability. A kinesthetically intelligent person learns by manipulating materials to formulate answers.

Interpersonal, Intrapersonal and Naturalistic intelligence focuses more on the social element of psychology which formal IQ testing does not incorporate.

  • A naturalistic individual is in touch with nature and understands about the environment
  • Interpersonal intelligence is how a person forms relationships with people and their ability to communicate with others such as their ability to negotiate and hold discussions with others.
  • Intrapersonal is the knowledge about one’s self. An ‘intrapersonally’ intelligent person will understand their feelings and emotions.

These final two categories of intelligence defined by Gardner, make up, what we would now refer to as, emotional intelligence. Emotional Intelligence, by definition is ‘the intelligent use of emotions’. Goleman is a key theorist regarding emotional intelligence and when comparing his theory against Gardner’s multiple intelligences, there is a clear link between the two.

 INTRA                                                   INTER

Self-awareness                                   Awareness of others

Self-management                               Relationship management.

Goleman identified five key ingredients that contribute to emotional intelligence: self-awareness, self-regulation, social skills, empathy and motivation.

ELSA Sessions

Within ELSA, pupils can be supported with emotional awareness, social skills, friendship skills, self-esteem and anger management – similar to the emotional competencies identified by Goleman. In order to teach these competencies, known as emotional literacy, pupils need to expand their emotional vocabulary and develop emotional awareness. This is taught through planned sessions using games, stories, pictures, puppets and role-play etc.

Example of Emotional Literacy referral form.

Example of Emotional Literacy referral form.

However despite these ELSA sessions being planned with specific intentions, the key principle that permeates emotional literacy support is the ability to talk and discuss how certain situations in your life are making you feel and putting the emotional competencies into real life situations.

However, these circumstances can be difficult to discuss when children are put in a formal situation with lots of directed questions. The most effective way, I have observed, in gaining information, is establishing a safe, comfortable environment, where the pupils feel free to share what they are thinking. Play and practical activities provide the perfect atmosphere to do so. Furthermore, the child should be prompted with related questions, rather than asking direct questions about the child’s circumstances. For example, when playing with Lego in an ELSA session, the teacher may ask, “Do you play with Lego at home?” followed by, “What do you like doing at home?” or “Who do you like playing with at home?” These questions often trigger the child to discuss problems or things that concern them.

Other strategies I have observed during my placement that support pupils with additional needs include nurture groups, such as gardening club or arts and crafts clubs at break or lunch.

How has ALL of this impacted on my Educational Philosophy?

 I think the most important thing that I have learnt from these two weeks is that children need to be heard. When children feel like they are not being listened to or are desperate for attention and nurture, their immediate reaction is usually to behave unusually. This may be disruptive behaviour or contrastingly introverted behaviour. However in the cases that I have observed, these have been due to a want for talk and time with an adult.

Consequently now I would aim to observe changes in behaviour, and perhaps record these (like the school does) in order to track and monitor pupils who may require additional time. I will assure pupils that I am always available to talk and I will try to find time for pupils, who do require some support, to play during lunch or break, and discuss their circumstances with me in a relaxed environment.

I will now consider appropriate prompting questions and practical activities to support these sessions. Any suggestions?

Building Financial Resilience: Is it our responsibility?

7 Replies

In a recent Mathematics and Science input, we were very fortunate to be visited by guest lecturer Brenda Rochead who works for the Scottish Financial Education Group. The input focused on how we can raise financially capable children in a society rife with poverty and undesirable financial situations through education starting in the early years. Her input, along with a related workshop, really challenged my views on financial education and children’s capacity to learn about finances and I wanted to record my new ideas within this post.

Personally I would say I handle my finances reasonably well. I have a part-time job while I study at University to fund living costs, I treat myself occasionally and socialise regularly and I try to save money when I am able to do so, however I do wonder how my financial status and attitude would differ had I been taught about money when I was at school. The 5-14 curriculum that I was taught under, did incorporate what I would now refer to as, “money education”. I was able to identify a variety of coins and notes; I could count the correct coins to pay for items; I was able to calculate change however if you asked me to read a bank statement or describe credit, even as a young adult, I’d find it incredibly challenging. Prior to the input with Brenda, my teaching strategies regarding financial education would have reflected similar approaches used while I was at primary school – for example, manipulating coins during role-play in a shop scenario and calculating the appropriate change. However following the input this attitude was completely changed. Although this is an essential skill, I believe we are limiting our pupils to this and almost creating a ‘purchasing ethos’ where money only concerns buying. Instead I believe we should be building financial resilience within our pupils introducing them to real life scenarios, developing life skills and preparing them for their unpredictable financial future.

So how do we build financial resilience within our youngest pupils? As highlighted by Brenda during the input, we should be addressing skills, knowledge, attitude, motivation and opportunities. By skills I refer to financial literacy – the understanding of how money works in the world: how we are able to make or earn money; how we manage money and how we can turn this into more through investment. With this in mind we should be teaching our pupils how to read bank statements to develop an awareness of spending and saving; discuss employment and develop entrepreneurial skills; introduce skills such as taking money out of an ATM machine and the necessary safety precautions or how to use online banking etc. The additional knowledge children should acquire through financial education includes, but is not limited to, the dangers in the financial world such as debts and online safety and where you are able to receive help should you find yourself in an undesirable situation. Furthermore we should be promoting a ‘need vs. want’ attitude when it comes to spending money and encouraging pupils to save money for later in life when they will need it most.

In early and first level, Curriculum for Excellence highlights the importance of manipulating money and the word “used” is very apparent within the experiences and outcomes. Without the addition of building financial resilience within the early years, we risk exposing our children to the “purchasing attitude” I mentioned earlier. Within second level, we begin to see the phrases “manage money”, “understand risks”, “budgeting” and “profit”. However I believe we should be exploring these earlier on in schools to encourage pupils to think further than how much it will cost to buy a Freddo after school!

Screen Shot 2016-01-28 at 14.14.22

CfE Experiences and Outcomes – Number, Money and Measure

Raising financially capable pupils is not just apparent within the Numeracy and Mathematics curricular areas. For example, the Health and Wellbeing experiences and outcomes touch on emotional and mental wellbeing which correlates directly with the pressure of finances. However the need for more emphasis of finance within CfE is apparent and Learning and Teaching Scotland released a document in 2010, that highlights the rationale for embedding more structure of this particular subject into the curriculum. “The philosophy and practice underpinning Curriculum for Excellence offers many opportunities for children and young people to experience financial education. Financial education will provide a relevant context to develop knowledgeable, skilful and enterprising children and young people who can take increasing responsibility for their own lives and plan for their future (p9).” By encouraging pupils to think about managing their money, we are creating responsible citizens and effective contributors to society, two of the four capacities highlighted in CfE.

Screen Shot 2016-01-28 at 14.16.06

CfE Experiences and Outcomes – Mental, Emotional, Social and Physical Wellbeing

Within their document, Learning and Teaching Scotland highlight a number of ways children can be involved in financial education. These include having a whole school credit union, running a money week and getting involved in fundraising (See the full document here). However like the CfE experiences and outcomes, I see this as an upper stage activity, where although the early and first level pupils could be involved, the responsibility would primarily fall to those in P6/P7.

So how can our EY pupils get involved in financial education? Play is an important part of EY learning and provides plenty opportunities for children to explore money beyond the traditional British Stirling coin set. Creating a Bureau de Change Role Play area would be a fantastic opportunity for pupils to explore different currencies and learn how to convert money. Alternatively a Travel Agent area would be a perfect opportunity to look at deals when travelling abroad and how to save money for trips on holiday.

Children often observe their parents when they are stood at an ATM machine or talking to accountants in the Bank so they could use this experience and act out these scenarios. Using a box or screen, the children could create an ATM and perform the necessary actions to take money out whilst another pupil counts the correct money. This would also allow for discussion about safety when at the bank or ATM.

Taking your personal receipts for the pupils to explore would be an engaging activity for the pupils – they’d love to see what your bought for your tea on Monday Night and they would be able to observe the format of a receipt and identify offers within the print!

With all this considered, the most important things I gained from Brenda’s input was to think outside the box regarding learning activities and aim to stretch my pupils understanding of money beyond purchasing niceties. As teachers we want to ensure that our pupils are as prepared as they can be for society, so why are we limiting their experiences and their mind-set?

How would you teach your pupils to become financially resilient? What other skills to pupils need to manage their money? What other learning activities would be beneficial to enhance their understanding of how money works? See my financial education pinterest board for some ideas on EY financial education.

References:

Learning and Teaching Scotland (2010) Financial Education: Developing skills for learning, life and work. Available at: http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/Images/developing_skills_web_tcm4-639212.pdf [Accessed: 28/01/16]

Scottish Government (2009) Curriculum for Excellence, Experiences and outcomes for all curriculum areas Available at: http://www.educationscotland.gov.uk/Images/all_experiences_outcomes_tcm4-539562.pdf

 

Schools – are they just an educational conveyor belt?

Leave a reply

Following discussion in a recent lecture about the function of schools in modern day society, I have reflected upon my views of formal education in Britain. Despite considering this during our first year study of sociology, I believe looking at global education systems, within the 2CM5 module, and through research into the proposed changes of Scottish Education in the near future has changed my views to an extent.

Before starting my degree I had seen primary and secondary education as two separate entities with different aims. I will never forget my experiences and memories made within primary school. I enjoyed every day I went to school – with the exception of Sports Day (and the troubles of being vertically challenged and finding a suitable partner for the three legged race) – because I knew that all members of staff supported us and our developmental needs were catered for, regardless of how large or small they might be. Lessons were always engaging and inspiring and our emotional and social wellbeing was at the heart of the school. Secondary school, however, was a completely different story. Within a month of attending high school, I was downtrodden by the ethos that centred around attainment and who was ‘intelligent’ and who was ‘thick’ which was made clear by some members of staff who did not ‘have time for “silly” questions’ or who were too busy reading off a powerpoint slide to even look for raised hands.

My opinion was altered during 1CM2, our first year Education Studies module, which focused more specifically on sociological, psychological and philosophical theories on the subject. Durkheim’s theory of Functionalism, which was addressed within the module, suggested that education had the main purposes of reinforcing social solidarity, maintaining social role and to maintain the division of labour. I had questioned this throughout my first year, accepting it as a theory however not fully understanding how this socialisation process had been prominent throughout my education from 3-18. It wasn’t until recently, when discussing Early Years development, that I appreciated this forced nature of socialisation. As our lecturer highlighted, in nurseries children are given the freedom to play when and where they want; they can make as much noise as they desire; they can explore and make meaning through their experiences and most importantly, can enjoy being children. However the transition to primary school is completely new to these children. Firstly they are expected to stay seated for long periods of time at a desk or on an uncomfortable carpeted area with a teacher looming above them. They are expected to remain silent or raise their hand to ask questions. Their playtime is limited to interval and lunchtime. Finally they are unable to make meaning from their play as the learning is curriculum based and during this “critical period”, reading schemes and phonics schemes are rigorously followed. This is evidently a means of socialising pupils that I had never considered before.

Another issue that has been brought to our attention is the forced cognitive development of pupils in the Early Years. In Scandinavian countries, formal schooling does not begin until children are between the ages of six to seven years old unlike Britain where children can walk through school doors as early as four years old. In Sweden and Norway, pupils are introduced to early learning experiences in pre-schools where they engage in meaningful outdoor learning. Furthermore, their learning environment mirrors home life unlike British schools that can sometimes feel like a multi-coloured storage box rammed with desks and limited areas to move. In Scandinavian countries, children are not introduced to literacy activities until they enter school at seven years of age – because this is when they are cognitively ready – and the attainment reflects the success of this methodology as Sweden sits at the top of the global literacy league table. Despite evidence suggesting that Britain would benefit from a move towards rising school entrance age, politicians seem to avoid the truth.

These political views seem to have a considerable impact on the functionalist role of schools. Why are we ignoring evidence proving that children should have time to develop through play and we should introduce them to literacy and academia when they are cognitively and physically ready? Finances? Economic necessity? Early in September it was announced that Nicola Sturgeon had plans to introduce standardised testing into the Scottish curriculum, one that was designed to move away from testing and attainment. Although I am aware that 32 councils across Scotland utilise different forms of assessment, I see this standardised testing as yet another functionalist system that will cause forced cognitive development on young children and move away from the ideology of CfE. I believe at this early stage we should be focusing on progressing children as individuals, not as a group target to be attained. Although I was taught under the 5-14 curriculum that utilised standardised testing to identify progression and I did not feel pressured by this system, I cannot speak for those who struggled in mathematics or literacy and were pushed by desperate teachers who needed to ensure the success of their so-called “underachieving” pupils.

Early socialisation and development of literacy and numeracy in the early years, assessment and other political drivers make me feel as though we are creating ‘little adults’ and not giving children the time and space that they require to be children. Although I appreciate the need for these systems currently, I hope to see change in the future of Education and that educational research can move us towards a more personalised education where development is seen as an individual attribute and not classified by attainment.

References

Bartlett, S. and Burton, D. (2012) Introduction to Education Studies. 3rd edn. London: Sage.

Bignold, W. And Gayton, L. (eds.) (2009) Global Issues and Comparative Education. Exeter:Learning Matters

Keatch, B. (2015) Early Years – Sweden [Lecture to MA (Hons) Education Year 2], ED21004 Educational Studies: Historical and Comparative Perspectives on Education. Dundee University. Tuesday 29th September 2015.

McIvor, J. (2015) Scottish Education: The return of Standardised testing? Available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-34108172 [Accessed: Tuesday 6th October 2015]

Sweden heads new literacy league. (no date) Available at: www.unicef.org/pon96/inlitera.htm [Accessed: Tuesday 6th October 2015]