These can serve as a foundation for future research and clinical work in this area. Key themes were- 

–Defining and Classifying Attendance Issues– Kearney et al. (a) and Kearney et al. (b) The authors also provide a multidimensional multi-tiered system of supports pyramid model as a potential mechanism for reconciliation. (Please refer to our summary of the article- Reconciling Contemporary Approaches to School Attendance and School Absenteeism: Toward Promotion and Nimble Response, Global Policy Review and Implementation, and Future Adaptability (Part 1)   

 Christopher A. Kearney1*, Carolina Gonzálvez2, Patricia A. Graczyk3 and Mirae J. Fornander1 for further information regarding the pyramid model) 

– Framing student absenteeism Gentle-Genitty et al. recommend a change to better leverage attendance data toward proactive support of young people.  

– Depression and Absenteeism–Askeland et al. expand on the well-established relationship between depression and school attendance problems. 

– Parent and Family Variables-Several articles in the Research Topic focus as well on that impact school attendance problems. Fornander and Kearney (b) examine family environment variables across different levels of absenteeism severity. 

 – Parenting and Family Environment Wang et al. find intricate patterns related to school engagement, a key predictor of absenteeism. 

 - Cyberbullying Delgado et al. examine profiles to explore school attendance problems. 

– Perceived Teacher Support Filippello et al. examine student satisfaction and frustration at school with regards to support from teachers. 

–Broader Community Issues– most notably those related to migrant and immigration status. Rosenthal et al. found that many immigrants confront systemic challenges following migration. 

-Residential mobility. Green et al. report that more than one-third of students in their American sample when studying absenteeism, moved at least once in the past year. 

Intervention aspects for youth with school attendance problems were also outlined. 

–Rapid Return to School Approach Maeda and Heyne report on a rapid approach implemented by education staff. A significant percentage (72%) of intervention cases were classified as treatment responders and 89% of these cases demonstrated a return to school in 1 week. 

– Cognitive Behavioural Intervention Lomholt et al. report on a feasibility study for Back2School, a CBT intervention used with Danish youth with school attendance problems. Initial outcomes of the feasibility study revealed a significant increase in school attendance and decrease in psychological symptoms, as well as a significant increase in youth and parent self-efficacy. 

In examining the approaches and research outlined in this article what are the key themes and universal approaches? 

What could be tailored for your specific establishment or individual learners expressing school avoidance issues? For example, how could you populate the pyramid of support to personalise it for your setting? 

Back2School Study 

Jing Liu, Susanna Loeb. Journal of Human Resources, Volume 56, Number 2, Spring 2021, pp. 343-379 

Looks at unexcused class level attendance and Californian standardised tests data for Maths  & ELA from 2003/4 to 2013/14 in America.  

Focuses on five core subjects – Maths, English language arts (ELA), science, social studies & foreign languages.  

Correlates with student demographic variables – race/ethnicity, gender, English learner status (EL) special education status and gifted status.  

Estimate teachers’ contributions to student class attendance in secondary school.  

Evaluate statistical properties of their new measure  

Link this measure with several student long-run outcomes 

Examine long-run effects of high value-added attendance teachers by students; prior absenteeism & prior achievement 

Tests variability of multidimensional teacher effects based on several student characteristics.   

5 research questions on: variance, stability, similarity, effects 

• Study found systematic variation in teacher effectiveness at reducing unexcused absence.  
• Teacher effectiveness on attendance only weakly correlates with their effects on achievement  
• High value added to attendance effective teachers have stronger impact on rates of finishing school than high value added to attainment teachers 
• High value added to attendance teachers can motivate students to pursue higher academic goals.  
• Positive effects of high value added to attendance teachers particularly help low-achieving and low-attendance students.  

Impact of low attendance – less learning, drug & alcohol use and crime 

Absenteeism among strongest predictors of long-term outcomes – school drop out rate 

Black, Hispanic and low-income students are more susceptible to absence which aggravates the achievement gaps.  

Factors causing absence 

Individual and family factors – student illness, residential mobility 

School factors which reduce absenteeism – positive and safe school environment along with effective, supportive and engaging teachers. 

Student miss 44% fewer Maths and 54% fewer English classes if have a high value added to attendance teacher.  

High value added to attendance teacher has stronger effects on a student’s opportunity to graduate from school and meaningful effects on pursuit of higher academic goals. This is particularly strong for students with lower prior achievement, lower prior attendance and high predicted probability of dropping out.   

Different ethnic groups have variable attendance patterns.  

Attendance varies by the timing of the class.  – most common to skip first period and then last period.  

Different grades have variable attendance patterns.  

Absence varies less by class subject 

Are these particular groups of pupils who are more affected by absenteeism than others?  

Gershenson 2016 – 3 to 5 graders in North Carolina. Doesn’t differentiate between excused and unexcused absence.  

.  

& Tamsin Ford (2020) Secondary school practitioners’ beliefs about risk factors for school 

attendance problems: a qualitative study, Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 25:1, 15-28, To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2019.1647684 

Reflection of existing academic research exploring interplay of risk factor, including the results of quantitative studies around the beliefs of primary teachers and other primary school staff. It also covers the terminology around ‘school refusal’ and ‘truancy’. Recommend similar study for secondary staff. 

Data collection – focus groups, sampling from 16 secondary staff in 3 schools in England.  

2017/18 – 8.7% primary and 13.9% secondary learners had persistent absences (missing 10%) 

Risk factors for attendance problems but there are complex interplays. Successful interventions will involve interdisciplinary collaboration between professionals in education and healthcare and our families: 

Individual – poor physical health, mental health problem, ASN, drug or alcohol use. 

Family – neglectful parenting, lack of parental involvement in school, unemployment, family conflict, family history of attendance problems. 

School – poor school climate, poor pupil-teacher relationships, school transition periods 

Peers – social isolation, lack of peer support, peer conflict, bullying and pressure from peers to skip school  

Findings suggest a perceived lack of agency by school practitioners in terms of their ability to influence risk factors for attendance problems. 

Findings suggest that secondary school practitioners are aware of many of the most common 

causes of attendance problems, but in general factors related to the individual and their family were 

highlighted, while school factors were de-emphasised. 

Recommendations:  

Schools implement anti-bullying policies, supplemented with the use of evidence-based bullying interventions  

Schools should take steps to encourage pupils to develop healthy relationships with peers and engage in positive activities, for example through peer mentoring schemes or links to voluntary sector activities. 

Schools should address academic stress and look at providing additional support  

Schools should look at supporting mental health and at their impact on ‘behavioural difficulties’.  

Schools should look at pupils with caring responsibilities  

Schools could support resilience through PSE lesson 

How are ACES impacting on our learners’ attendance? 

.  

 Christopher A. Kearney1*, Carolina Gonzálvez2, Patricia A. Graczyk3 and Mirae J. Fornander1 

Reconciling Contemporary Approaches to School Attendance and School Absenteeism: Toward Promotion and Nimble Response, Global Policy Review and Implementation, and Future Adaptability (Part 2)  

Christopher A. Kearney1*, Carolina Gonzálvez2, Patricia A. Graczyk3 and Mirae J. Fornander1 

Part 2 sets out a framework for early prevention and intervention of attendance problems.  

Problems with school attendance are linked to internal behaviour problems such as anxiety, depression, suicide as well as external behaviour problems such as use of alcohol, drugs, poor peer relationships and involvement with the criminal justice system.  

“Students who drop out of high school are 24 times more likely than graduates to experience 4 or more negative life outcomes” (Landsford et al, 2016).  

School attendance problems have no consensus definition and can be complex due to the fact that risk factors for these are multi-layered. General definitions are grouped into a categorical (sorting students into defined groups to try to better understand the underlying behaviour) or dimensional approach (recognising the diversity and complexity of behaviours on a scale or continuum).  

The article examines the definitions of terminology relating to school attendance problems including truancy, school refusal, school phobia and school dropout (p3-6). Further research on the definitions and terminology around school attendance can be found in the summaries of the following research article: School non-attendance: definitions, meanings, responses, interventions, Dario W Pellegrini, March 2007.  

Through using a dimensional approach to school attendance a school should consider a spectrum from full presence to complete absence as shown in the diagram below.  

Understanding early warning signs such as frequent requests to leave the classroom or avoidance of classes or areas of the school can be used to highlight potential absence problems before they arise.  

Kearney and Graczyk (2016) advocate the use of a Multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) model (see figure 2) to boost school attendance and address school attendance problems at different severity, risk factor and context levels. This model can be used flexibly  and adaptably across a range of contexts and is based on evidence based best practice interventions. 

Part 2 

Following on from part 1, this article states the need for the design of a framework for school attendance which unites and blends both the categorical and dimensional approaches as they have overlapping qualities and purposes.  

The authors suggest that the Multi-tiered system of support model (MTSS) as suggested in part 1 can be further evolved to account for greater heterogeneity through used of a multi –tiered, multi-domain system of supports (MTMDSS). In this model the support is associated with multiple domains who are making simultaneous efforts to address the same issue (e.g educational psychology, school pastoral care staff, CAHMs etc). The used of a pyramid system rather than the 1 dimensional triangle shown in figure 2 allows for greater cross-sector working and enhances creativity and innovation in the use of preventative and intervention strategies.  

The base of the pyramid as shown in figure 3 focuses on promoting school attendance rather than preventing absenteeism. This involves consideration of factors such as work experience, smaller class sizes, access to mental health support, anti-bullying policies.  

The second tier of the pyramid is focused around early warning systems and nimble responses to absenteeism, perhaps through the use of screening such as data collection systems.  

Tier 3 approaches for students who are disconnected from school should focus on the opportunities for alternative pathways for career-readiness or use of virtual or project based learning to provide alternative or blended pathways.  

 As education and technology rapidly change use of a pyramid system to address problems with school attendance allows for flexibility and adaptability in responses through prevention and intervention.  

Do we understand attendance problems on a spectrum or continuum that is changeable over time?  

Are our staff, pupils and parents aware of the negative future impact of non-attendance?  

Kearney, C. A. (2016). Managing school absenteeism at multiple tiers: An evidence-based and practical guide for professionals. Oxford: New York. 

Stoiber, K. C., and Gettinger, M. (2016). “Multi-tiered systems of support and evidence-based practices” in Handbook of response to intervention. eds. S. Jimerson, M. K. Burns, and A. M. VanDerHeyden (Boston, MA: Springer), 121–141. 

Sugai, G., and Horner, R. H. (2009). Responsiveness-to-intervention and school-wide positive behavior supports: integration of multi-tiered system approaches. Exceptionality 17, 223–237. doi: 10.1080/09362830903235375 

Xie, H., Chu, H. C., Hwang, G. J., and Wang, C. C. (2019). Trends and development in technology-enhanced adaptive/personalized learning: a systematic review of journal publications from 2007 to 2017. Comput. Educ. 140:103599. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2019.103599  

Zaff, J. F., Donlan, A., Gunning, A., Anderson, S. E., McDermott, E., and Sedaca, M. (2017). Factors that promote high school graduation: a review of the literature. Educ. Psychol. Rev. 29, 447–476. doi: 10.1007/s10648-016-9363-5 

– The study discussed that addressing absenteeism among older children would probably require some combination of relevant curriculum, classroom interventions as well as monitoring and supervision by schools.  

– The study reported that the role of the teacher also needs to be leveraged in encouraging students to attend school regularly.  

-When the Delhi government provided free sanitary products to girls enrolled in grades 6–12 between 2011 and 2016, it found relative success in improving attendance (Agarwal, 2018).  

-A framework more comprehensive than the demand- supply framework is needed for a holistic understanding of the reasons behind school non- attendance. It is perhaps more useful to categorize factors of absenteeism as “pull, push” and “opt out” (Murphy-Graham et al., 2020). “Push” factors are those that operate at the level of school pushing children to absent themselves from school while “pull” factors operate at the level of the household. “Opt-out” factors are intrinsic to the child such as lack of interest in pursuing schooling/ education. In short to medium term, school and educational administrators should focus on “push” factors that cause the child to be absent from school regularly. “Pull” factors typically do not fall within the domain of the schooling system. However, if children are not able to attend school on account of their family’s circumstances, then financial incentives reducing the costs of education could be a way forward for ensuring regular attendance of these children. * 

-Local Authorities could also enlist initiatives that improve children’s health if it emerges as a significant reason for absenteeism.  

*Demand Factors Cited- Demographic Household Characteristics, Gender, Age, Parental Education, Economic and       Cultural Background, Marital Status and Physical Aspects 

Supply Factors Cited- Infrastructure (including toileting facilities) School Experience  

Is it the case that school absenteeism starts early in primary school (Reid, 2005)?  

Do children who have higher absenteeism in primary school continue to have higher absenteeism at higher levels of schooling? Or do they drop out of the schooling system? 

Is absenteeism higher at times of transition e.g., from primary to upper primary school etc.? 

Ballantyne, C., Wilson, C., Toye, M.K., & Gillespie-Smith, K. (2022). Knowledge and barriers to inclusion of ASC pupils in Scottish mainstream schools: A mixed methods approach. International Journal of Inclusive Education. DOI: 10.1080/13603116.2022.2036829 

Cunningham, A., Harvey, K., & Waite, P. (2022). School staffs’ experiences of supporting children with school attendance difficulties in primary school: A qualitative study. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, DOI: 10.1080/13632752.2022.2067704 

The MSS survey is administered to students across the state, with students and parents having the choice to ‘opt out’ if they desire. Students had the opportunity to skip questions within the survey. 10 questions from the survey were chosen to represent the prevalence of ACEs, 3 questions were chosen linked to the identified education outcomes outlined above and 7 questions were used to measure school connectedness. The survey is used by the state as a planning tool to inform future resourcing.  

Hardcastle et al suggest education may play a critical role in moderating the impact of adversity and addressing the associated inequalities. One factor related to improving education related outcomes is fostering an environment based on school connectedness. School connectedness is defined as ‘the belief held by students that adults and peers in school care about their learning as well as about them as an individual.’ (US Center for Disease Control and Prevention).  

Survey results 

• 5% of the respondents to the survey reported having >4 ACEs (females 6.4%, males 3.7%). Report of having >4 ACEs was associated with having more than 4 times the likelihood of having on of the 3 education-related outcomes which were measured. 
• Among males who reported sexual abuse or food insecurity there was strong association with responding that they had no plan to graduate.  
• Among males and females who reported sexual abuse there was a strong association with responding that they had cut school for more than 3 days in the past month.  
• Experience of any ACEs was associated with males being 1.5 times more likely to have below average grades.  
• Marginal effects were reduced by school connection. These effected differed between male and female students.  

The study did not conclude that school connection can improve on the impact of ACEs and education –related outcomes, however the author does suggest that there would be scope to explore these relationships further with younger students within the 6th – 8th grades. The author concludes that while the results of the study did not show a link between school connectedness and mitigating the impact of ACEs that school contextual factors may still promote youth wellbeing, a sense of belonging and resilience to challenge adversity.  

Are staff aware of pupils within their setting who have >3 ACEs?  

Do we have effective tools for screening pupils for ACEs and to gather data based on planning for future outcomes?  

What knowledge do senior leadership teams and pastoral care staff have on school connectedness?  

What role do EP colleagues have to play in gathering data on ACEs and future education outcomes?  

experiences and educational and employment success in England and Wales: findings from a retrospective study. Public Health. 2018;165:106-116. 

US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. School connectedness: strategies for increasing protective factors among youth. 

1. Positive influence on social development and mental and physical health 

1. Prepares youth for transition into adulthood  

1. Aids economic and social participation in society  

1. Provides access to academic, practical and social-emotional learning.  

INSA’s mission: to reduce absenteeism and promote attendance by researching and disseminating information, assessment and intervention strategies.  

INSA’s objectives: 1) to ensure all stakeholders have access to current scientific and practical developments in the field, 2) to share data and best practice, 3) to connect and mentor junior researchers and practitioners, 4) to convene annually at different international locations, 5) to document deliberations in the field.  

The paper outlines 3 key challenges, identified by INSA’s members, that hamper progress in promoting attendance and reducing absenteeism:  

Lack of consensus  

No universally agreed upon classification or definition exists. Kearney et al’s functional model of absenteeism provides meaningful classification and Heyne et al’s model suggests 4 categories of SAP (school refusal, truancy, withdrawal, exclusion) and that interventions should be differentiated in response to the type of absenteeism.  

The field lacks clarity around the attendance rate thresholds for when is best to begin initial interventions and intensive interventions and how often to measure attendance. Research recommends frequent monitoring.  

There is a lack of a shared, interdisciplinary research agenda. New interdisciplinary models for SAP research have emerged but these require efficient and effective dissemination and implementation in order to inform the creation of multi-level assessments and intervention strategies.  

Inadequate attention to the voices of all stakeholders  

In order to fully understand and address the causes of SAPs, the first-hand views of all stakeholders should be obtained to form a fully interdisciplinary approach. The extent of qualitative research required to effectively obtain these views is limited and often unreliable. The paper summarises and references examples of qualitative studies but acknowledges the limitations of the findings due to the small size and narrowed selection criteria of the samples used. The voice of parents and professionals is under-represented across studies.  

Sub-standard dissemination and implementation  

Inadequate dissemination of information and data across disciplines (i.e. education and psychology) and across countries, has resulted in inconsistent use of definitions and classifications, making it difficult to analyse attendance trends, ultimately hampering our ability to identify areas of greatest need and hindering our understanding of socio-cultural influences on attendance and root causes of SAPs. The paper acknowledges the potential of a multi-tiered implementation approach, namely the Response to Intervention Model (RtI). The paper also recommends the use of specific implementation science strategies to best support the adoption and use of complex models such as the RtI.  

The papers concludes with a statement from INSA outlining current and intended future developments. It also invites professionals involved in the field of attendance to become members of their network.  

Can we use INSA’s operational structure and improvement strategy to enhance our own strategic plan?  

How can we best make leaders at all levels aware of the three key challenges that hinder progress in promoting attendance and reducing absenteeism?  

Bellis et al. BMC Public Health (2018) 18:792 

https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-018-5699-8 

 adult available, given opportunities, treated fairly, culturally engaged, supportive friends and having a role model) showed protective relationships with each child health condition, overall health status and school attendance. This was a comparative, retrospective study where those with reported ACES were measured for a level of benefit with respect to the amount of access they had to the seven mitigating factors. This research study wanted to determine if community factors that provide support, friendship and opportunities for development could build children’s resilience whilst safeguarding against some of the damaging impacts of ACEs. There were no interventions offered by this group.   

The method of study involved a national (Wales) cross-sectional retrospective survey of 2452 individuals using a stratified random probability sampling methodology. That being, the overall group studied were split into smaller groups, these groupings being decided by their common characteristics or attributes.  

Outcome measures were self-reported poor childhood health, specific conditions (asthma, allergies, headaches, digestive disorders) and school absenteeism.  

The conclusion of the study outlined that, better prevention of ACEs through the combined actions of public services may reduce levels of common childhood conditions, improve school attendance and help alleviate pressures on public services. Whilst the eradication of ACEs remains unlikely, actions to strengthen community resilience assets may partially offset their immediate harms. 

How might an educational setting be a partner in ensuring effective exposure to the maximum amount of community resilience assets?  

How can we ensure that the researched wellbeing strategies are supported universally or indeed with a more targeted approach when childhood adversity is prevalent? 

ACEs- Educational Interventions 

Socioeconomic Disparities in School Absenteeism after the First Wave of COVID-19 School Closures in Scotland — University of Strathclyde  

The report also compares school absenteeism rates pre and post COVID, using biennial yearly attendance rates from 2006/07 – 2018/19. Attendance rates categorised by SIMD are only available from 2012/13.   

In addition, the report strives to determine if socioeconomic inequalities exist in both COVID-19 related and non-COVID related school absenteeism, and if so, to what extent. Socioeconomic information was measured using the Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation (SIMD). It is important to note that this analysis includes data for both primary and secondary pupils, as SIMD information is only available for primary and secondary combined. Therefore, the report is unable to present findings that demonstrate socioeconomic disparities in school attendance separately for primary and secondary.   

In comparison to absence rates from previous years, the study indicates that overall absence was 2.7% higher. This increase was mainly due to COVID-19 related absences, with non-COVID 19 absence rates similar to that of previous years. However, findings show a rise in socioeconomic inequality in non-covid related absenteeism, with data showing higher absence rates among pupils from the most deprive backgrounds and lower absence rates among pupils from the least deprived backgrounds. The disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on the health (Lone et al., 2020), wellbeing and learning (Andrew et al. 2020) during lockdown for those from disadvantaged backgrounds, is acknowledged by the report for the rise in socioeconomic inequality, and this extends to the inequality in attendance rates after the first school closures.   

Based on previous research, the report takes the stance that school absenteeism has a detrimental effect on academic achievement (e.g. Gottfried, 2010). After analysing the absenteeism data to identify trends, the report goes on to conclude that the education of children from more deprived socioeconomic backgrounds did not only suffer during the first bout of school closures, but it was also adversely affected through more frequent school closures after the lockdown. Therefore, the report advises that addressing the disproportionate short-term and long-term impact of the pandemic on the most vulnerable children needs to be made paramount and placed at the forefront of the educational policy agenda, in order to mitigate the consequences of COVID-19 on achievement gaps.  

How can we delve deeper into the socioeconomic factors which negatively affect attendance?  

How can schools best address the disproportionate impact of COVID-19 on the health, wellbeing and learning on pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds?  

Klein, M., Goodfellow, C., Dare, S., & Sosu, E. (2020). Socioeconomic Inequalities in School Attendance in Scotland: Research Brief. University of Strathclyde. 

To investigate how students’ perceptions of relationships with peers at school and teachers’ classroom management are associated with school refusal and truancy.  

Supports viewing school refusal (non-attendance due to expectation of experiencing strong negative emotions while at school) and truancy (related to anti-school sentiments and antisocial characteristics – such as school is boring and activities outside school are more rewarding) This difference is needed to implement effective preventative measures 

Poor relationships with peers = important risk factor for school refusal and moderate risk factor for truancy.  

Teachers’ classroom management may indirectly lead to school refusal when not preventing bullying or social isolation by peers.  

Secondary teachers’ classroom management directly impacted on school refusal and truancy through perceived poor support. Good teacher-student relationships could directly influence the prevalence of school refusal and truancy  

Efforts to prevent bullying is important in reducing school refusal more so in primary than secondary.  

Social isolation at school affected secondary school refusers more.  

Impact of absence -on personal, emotional, social ad academic development.  

Prolonged absence effects – school dropout, impaired social functioning, unemployment, mental health problems, needs for welfare services 

Impact of truancy – delinquent behaviour, juvenile crime. 

Difficult peer relationships – Studies suggest that having good friends who provide social support may prevent school refusal as school refusers can be shy and socially withdrawn so problematic peer relationships and bullying have an impact.  

Teachers’ classroom management – includes structuring social interactions, supporting individuals. Lack of classroom order/structure/organisation may have a role to play as difficult to prevent bullying, unpleasant or threatening experiences. Structured classrooms promote predictability which supports attendance.  

Individual and family factors – Emotional instability can lead to anger, anxiety, depression and vulnerable to stress and more at risk of school refusal. Parental support of school can lower truancy.  

classroom management associated with SR-related and truancy-related reasons 

for school non-attendance if controls are included for emotional stability, parental 

interest in schoolwork and parental monitoring of reasons for absence? 

2. Do these associations differ between students in primary and secondary school? 

The survey questions could provide the basis for your own survey.