Threshold Theory
· Jim Cummins (2001) proposed that there are different thresholds for language learning. Picture these as the floors of a building. On the lower floor children have low levels of competence in both their first and second languages and will likely experience negative effects on their thinking skills.
· Learners who are above the first threshold have an age-appropriate level of competence in one of their languages, but not the other language(s). They are unlikely to experience positive or negative consequences.
· Above the second threshold learners will have age-appropriate competency in both languages (balanced bilinguals) and are likely to experience cognitive advantages. See The amazing benefits of being bilingual - BBC Future
· See also:
o Principles of Bilingual Education, 11 minutes (youtube.com) 5.56 – 9.39
o NALDIC | EAL guidance | Bilingualism and Second Language Acquisition
o Threshold hypothesis - Wikipedia
o Cummins (1976) – Threshold Hypothesis - Cognitive Theories of Bilingualism (1library.net)
o Baker, Colin. (2001). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Third Edition. Bilingual Education and Bilingualism 27.
Common Underlying Proficiency
· Jim Cummins (1984 & 2000) argues that there is a common underlying proficiency when learning languages.
· In simple terms, when learning a second language, there will be many things that the learner will already know that are common between two languages, and the skills and knowledge they have already learned will transfer to the second language.
· This relates to threshold theory, in that the more developed the first language is, the more likely it will be that a learner will be able to develop proficiency in the second language.
· Skills such as problem solving, working memory, attention, abstract reasoning, literacy will transfer to the second language, meaning they are not starting from the beginning.
For example: A child who already knows how to decode Latin script in Polish will find it easier to learn to decode in English than if they did not have those skills in first language.
Their decoding skills will transfer to English and enable them to develop their English reading skills.
There will still be some surface features that they need to learn, for example the differences between alphabets and phonology (In Polish, a ‘w’ makes a ‘v’ sound, ‘i’ makes an ‘ee’ etc.) but they will not be starting from scratch.
· Using first language learning and skills to support learning in the second language will strengthen language development in both languages.
· See also:
o Principles of Bilingual Education, 11 minutes (youtube.com) 3.11-5.56
o NALDIC | EAL guidance | Bilingualism and Second Language Acquisition
o Cummins, J. (1984) Bilingualism and special education. Clevedon : Multilingual Matters
o Cummins, J. (2000) Language, Power and Pegagogy. Clevedon : Multimlingual Matters
o The language learning theories of Professor J. Cummins (internationalschooltutors.de)
o Sharples, R. (2021). Teaching EAL: Evidence-based strategies for the classroom and school. Multilingual Matters. pp53,75
BICS/CALP
· Jim Cummins (1979, 2001) proposed that the language skills needed during classroom activities can be distinguished into two categories.
· BICS ‘Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills’ are the linguistic skills needed for everyday social interaction.
o It is context embedded – There are lots of clues to support the language.
o It is not cognitively demanding.
o It takes typically 6 months to two years to develop.
· CALP ‘Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency’ is the more abstract, specialist language used across challenging curricular concepts.
o It tends to be context reduced – with less clues from the context to support understanding of the language.
o A range of skills are required as CALP develops, including comparison, classification, inference etc.
o Sharples (2021) highlights that ‘cognitive’, ‘academic’ and ‘language’ are linked – language and thinking go together and are best learned in the context of the classroom.
o It takes at least five years to develop CALP, with some researchers arguing it can take 7 to 11 years.
· Although BICS and CALP are distinct types of language they are often encountered alongside one another in the classroom.
· Cummins proposed that the level of cognitive demand is related to the context given to support a task. Refer to the above diagram of Cummins quadrants.
o Children who are new to English will initially need lots of contextual clues to support learning and may find it difficult to access more cognitively demanding tasks.
o The teacher’s target is to support the child in accessing more cognitively demanding activities (moving from quadrant A to B). increasing the level of cognitive demand while keeping the context very supportive.
o They will then aim to gradually move to tasks in Quadrant D where the cognitive level remains high but context is reduced. Tasks would become more abstract with children expected to work independently and individually at a challenging level.
o Tasks in Quadrant C are both cognitively undemanding and abstract, for example children copying something they do not understand. These have little or no learning potential although some valuable activities may be in this quadrant, for example practising letter formation (Sharples, 2021).
o A range of EAL strategies can be used to provide supportive context to activities. See ‘Inside the classroom’ for more information, but key strategies include:
§ Building on prior knowledge.
§ Using first language to provide context. (Translanguaging, use of L1 glossary, linking with home to encourage family to discuss upcoming concepts/language).
§ Use of clear visuals and practical examples, use of realia.
See the NALDIC resource p28 for more examples.
· See also:
o 2132-2006 unit 1 (naldic.org.uk) p27, 28
o Jim Cummins Reasarch BICS and CALP (youtube.com)
o NALDIC | EAL guidance | Bilingualism and Second Language Acquisition
o Sharples, R. (2021). Teaching EAL: Evidence-based strategies for the classroom and school. Multilingual Matters. P76-77
o Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic Interdependence and the Educational Development of Bilingual Children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222-251. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543049002222
o Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Clevedon, England: Multilingual Matters.
o Cummins, J. (2001). Negotiating identities: Education for empowerment in a diverse society (2nd ed.). Los Angeles: California Association for Bilingual Education.
Silent Period
· Many children who are in the early stages of acquiring English can go through a ‘silent period’ or ‘non-verbal period’ as they settle into a new unfamiliar environment.
· During this time they will be processing the sounds of the new language, actively listening to distinguish words and find meaning.
· They will be watching and listening to relate what they hear to the context of what they can see and understand, linking to their previous experiences.
· It takes time to tune in to the sounds of a new language and develop the confidence to speak.
· It is important that staff don’t pressure children to speak, but instead provide good models of language, support nonverbal responses, and enable children to engage and take an active part in learning.
· Remember, understanding will come first, then productive language will follow – as is the case for language development in all children, lots of good quality input is needed to enable the children to develop understanding before they can begin to output language.
· Although it may not feel like a child is making progress if they remain silent, there may be several indicators that they are making progress, including how they respond and communicate non verbally and how they begin to experiment with sounds. The EAL Service can advise on tracking progress through the silent period, supported by a tracking resource.
· The NALDIC website describes ten strategies proposed by Priscilla Clarke (1992) to support children’s language development during the silent period:
o Continued talking even when children do not respond.
o Persistent inclusion in small groups with other children;
o Use of varied questions;
o Inclusion of other children as the focus in the conversation;
o Use of the first language;
o Acceptance of non-verbal responses;
o Praising of minimal effort;
o Expectations to respond with repeated words and/or counting;
o Structuring of programme to encourage child to child interaction;
o Provide activities which reinforce language practice through role play.
(Clarke, 1992 p.17-18)
· See also:
